Sentences can be classified according to their structural, semantic and
pragmatic properties.
читать дальшеThe elementary sentence coincides structurally with the so-called unexpanded simple sentence, a monopredicative sentence, which includes only obligatory nominative parts. The expanded simple sentence includes also some optional parts, i.e. supplementive modifiers, which do not violate the syntactic status of the simple sentence, i.e. do not make it into a composite or semi-composite sentence
The two principal parts of the sentence, the subject and the predicate, with the subordinate secondary parts attached to them are the two constitutive members or “axes” of the sentence: the subject group (the subject “axis”) and the predicate group (the predicate “axis”). On the basis of their representation in the outer structure of the sentence, sentences are subdivided into complete sentences and incomplete sentences: in complete sentences both the subject group and the predicate group are present; they are also called “two-member sentences” or “two-axis sentences”; if only one axis is expressed in the outer structure of the sentence, the sentence is defined as incomplete; it is also called “one-member sentence”, “one-axis sentence.
One-member sentences are further divided into:
a) nominal or "naming" sentences;
b) infinitival sentences.
Nominal sentences name a person or thing. The main member in such
sentences is expressed by a noun.
e.g. Winter. Snow.
The main member of infinitival sentences is expressed by an infinitive.
Infinitival sentences are fairly common in spoken English and literary prose. Like
other units of predicative value, they can communicate not only their denotative
meaning but also the connotative suggestions of various circumstances of their use.
e.g. To talk like that to your own mother! To have eloped with a butler!
One-member sentences should be kept apart from two-member sentences
with either the subject or the predicate omitted, i. e. from elliptical sentences.
The semantic classification of simple sentences is based on principal parts semantics. On the basis of subject categorial meaning, sentences are divided into impersonal, e.g.: It drizzles; There is no use crying over spilt milk; and personal; personal sentences are further subdivided into human and non-human. Human sentences are further subdivided into definite, e.g.: I know it; and indefinite, e.g.: One never knows such things for sure. Non-human sentences are further subdivided into animate, e.g.: A cat entered the room;and inanimate, e.g.: The wind opened the door. Impersonal sentences may be further subdivided into factual, e.g.: It drizzles; and perceptional, e.g. It looks like rain.
On the basis of predicate categorial meaning, sentences are divided into process featuring (“verbal”) and substance featuring (“nominal”); process featuring sentences are further subdivided into actional, e.g.: I play ball; and statal, e.g.: I enjoy your party; substance featuring sentences are further subdivided into factual, e.g.: She is clever; and perceptional, e.g.: She seems to be clever. As the examples show, the differences in subject categorial meaning are sustained by obvious differences in the subject-predicate combinability.
In practical courses on grammar, various subdivisions of simple sentences are usually based on the structure of the predicate: predicates are subdivided intosimple (I read) and compound, which are further subdivided into compound verbal predicates (She started crying) and compound nominal predicates with pure and specifying link verbs (She looked beautiful).
On the basis of subject-object relations, simple sentences are divided into subjective, e.g.: He is a writer;objective, e.g.: He is writing a book; and neutral or“potentially” objective, e.g.: He is writing.
The illocutionary force of an utterance is the speaker's intention in producing that utterance. An illocutionary act is an instance of a culturally-defined speech act type, characterised by a particular illocutionary force; for example, promising, advising, warning, ..
Thus, if a speaker asks How's that salad doing? Is it ready yet?" as a way of ("politely") enquiring about the salad, his/her intent may be in fact to make the waiter bring the salad. Thus the illocutionary force of the utterance is not an inquiry about the progress of salad construction, but a demand that the salad be brought.
Another definition:
Illocutionary force is the combination of
• the illocutionary point of an utterance, and
• the particular presuppositions and attitudes that must accompany that point, including the
o strength of the illocutionary point
o preparatory conditions
o propositional content conditions
o mode of achievement
o sincerity conditions, and
o strength of sincerity conditions.
Examples (English)
• Illocutionary force distinguishes the following types of acts:
• Asserting
• Promising
• Excommunicating
• Exclaiming in pain
• Inquiring
• Ordering
pragmatic properties.
читать дальшеThe elementary sentence coincides structurally with the so-called unexpanded simple sentence, a monopredicative sentence, which includes only obligatory nominative parts. The expanded simple sentence includes also some optional parts, i.e. supplementive modifiers, which do not violate the syntactic status of the simple sentence, i.e. do not make it into a composite or semi-composite sentence
The two principal parts of the sentence, the subject and the predicate, with the subordinate secondary parts attached to them are the two constitutive members or “axes” of the sentence: the subject group (the subject “axis”) and the predicate group (the predicate “axis”). On the basis of their representation in the outer structure of the sentence, sentences are subdivided into complete sentences and incomplete sentences: in complete sentences both the subject group and the predicate group are present; they are also called “two-member sentences” or “two-axis sentences”; if only one axis is expressed in the outer structure of the sentence, the sentence is defined as incomplete; it is also called “one-member sentence”, “one-axis sentence.
One-member sentences are further divided into:
a) nominal or "naming" sentences;
b) infinitival sentences.
Nominal sentences name a person or thing. The main member in such
sentences is expressed by a noun.
e.g. Winter. Snow.
The main member of infinitival sentences is expressed by an infinitive.
Infinitival sentences are fairly common in spoken English and literary prose. Like
other units of predicative value, they can communicate not only their denotative
meaning but also the connotative suggestions of various circumstances of their use.
e.g. To talk like that to your own mother! To have eloped with a butler!
One-member sentences should be kept apart from two-member sentences
with either the subject or the predicate omitted, i. e. from elliptical sentences.
The semantic classification of simple sentences is based on principal parts semantics. On the basis of subject categorial meaning, sentences are divided into impersonal, e.g.: It drizzles; There is no use crying over spilt milk; and personal; personal sentences are further subdivided into human and non-human. Human sentences are further subdivided into definite, e.g.: I know it; and indefinite, e.g.: One never knows such things for sure. Non-human sentences are further subdivided into animate, e.g.: A cat entered the room;and inanimate, e.g.: The wind opened the door. Impersonal sentences may be further subdivided into factual, e.g.: It drizzles; and perceptional, e.g. It looks like rain.
On the basis of predicate categorial meaning, sentences are divided into process featuring (“verbal”) and substance featuring (“nominal”); process featuring sentences are further subdivided into actional, e.g.: I play ball; and statal, e.g.: I enjoy your party; substance featuring sentences are further subdivided into factual, e.g.: She is clever; and perceptional, e.g.: She seems to be clever. As the examples show, the differences in subject categorial meaning are sustained by obvious differences in the subject-predicate combinability.
In practical courses on grammar, various subdivisions of simple sentences are usually based on the structure of the predicate: predicates are subdivided intosimple (I read) and compound, which are further subdivided into compound verbal predicates (She started crying) and compound nominal predicates with pure and specifying link verbs (She looked beautiful).
On the basis of subject-object relations, simple sentences are divided into subjective, e.g.: He is a writer;objective, e.g.: He is writing a book; and neutral or“potentially” objective, e.g.: He is writing.
The illocutionary force of an utterance is the speaker's intention in producing that utterance. An illocutionary act is an instance of a culturally-defined speech act type, characterised by a particular illocutionary force; for example, promising, advising, warning, ..
Thus, if a speaker asks How's that salad doing? Is it ready yet?" as a way of ("politely") enquiring about the salad, his/her intent may be in fact to make the waiter bring the salad. Thus the illocutionary force of the utterance is not an inquiry about the progress of salad construction, but a demand that the salad be brought.
Another definition:
Illocutionary force is the combination of
• the illocutionary point of an utterance, and
• the particular presuppositions and attitudes that must accompany that point, including the
o strength of the illocutionary point
o preparatory conditions
o propositional content conditions
o mode of achievement
o sincerity conditions, and
o strength of sincerity conditions.
Examples (English)
• Illocutionary force distinguishes the following types of acts:
• Asserting
• Promising
• Excommunicating
• Exclaiming in pain
• Inquiring
• Ordering