30. The Subordinate Clause: Classification

1) The Noun Clause:
The clause doing the same function as a noun is called the Noun clause.

a) Subordinate Subject Clauses have the function of the subject to the predicate of the main clause. They are introduced by:
- Conjunctions: That / Whether
- Conjunctive Pronouns: Who / What /Which
- Conjunctive Adverbs: When/ Where / How / Why
Eg: That he will come is certain.
Who broke the glass window remained unknown.
How she managed to do it seemed a mystery to me.
Sometimes, the impersonal pronoun ‘it’ is used to introduce the subject clause:
Eg: It is necessary that we should all be present.
It is still unknown when we will come.


b) Subordinate Predicative Clauses have the function of the predicate. They are introduced by the same conjunctions and “if’, conjunctive pronouns and adverbs as in the subject clauses. The linking verb is in the main clause. The predicative clause together with the linking verb forms a compound nominal predicate to the subject of the main clause:
Eg: The question is whether it may rain or not.
It looks as if it were going to rain.
That is why she is so happy.

Relative Clauses
An important type of subordinate clause is the RELATIVE CLAUSE. Here are some examples:
The man [who lives beside us] is ill
The video [which you recommended] was terrific
Relative clauses are generally introduced by a relative pronoun, such aswho, or which. However, the relative pronoun may be ellipted:
The video [you recommended] was terrific
Another variant, the REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSE, has no relative pronoun, and the verb is nonfinite:
The man [living beside us] is ill
(Compare: The man [who lives beside us]...)

3) The Adverbial Clauses: Add the meaning to a verb, an adjective or an adverb of the main clause in the function of an adverbial modifier.
Eg: I will speak to him when he comes. He will follow her wherever she goes.

Adverbial clauses are connected to the main clause by means of conjunctions: when, why, after, because, if, etc. On the ground of their meaning, adverbial clauses are classified into 8 kinds:

1- Adverbial clauses of TIME: broadly answer the question “When?” and can be introduced by the following conjunctions: when, why, after, before, as, as long as, since, etc.
Eg: Please tell him that as soon as he arrives.
She was in the kitchen while the telephone was ringing.
He thought carefully before he decided to do this.
You may enjoy yourself as long as you like to.
To express that action of the subordinate clause closely follows that of the main clause, some negative conjunctive adverbs, such as: hardly, scarcely, no sooner, etc. are used and the main clauses are used in inversion structure.
Eg: Hardly had I reached the station when the train started to leave the platform.
Scarcely had she open the door when all the lights were out.
No sooner had she got home than it started raining cats and dogs.

2- Adverbial clauses of PLACE: answer the question “Where?” and can be introduced by the conjunctions:where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc. Adverbial clauses of Place normally comes after the main clause. Sometimes, they can begin the sentence for the sake of emphasis.
Eg: The house was built where two roads meet.
You can camp wherever you like to.
Everywhere Mary went, she was mistaken by her sister.
The pagoda was built where there had once been a Catholic Church.

3- Adverbial clauses of MANNER or COMPARISON: answer the question “How?” and can be introduced by the conjunctions: as, as if, as though, the more…the more…, the less…the less…, etc. They usually come after the main clause.
Eg: I will do it exactly as you told me.
It sounds as if the situation will become worse.
He worked much better than I had hoped.

4- Adverbial clauses of REASON or CAUSE: broadly answer the question “Why?” and can be introduced by the conjunctions: because, as, since, seeing that, for fear that, etc.
Eg: They decided to give up the trip because the weather had turned out too bad.
Since you insist, we will go together.
As the day was clear and there was sunshine, we decided to go on a camping holiday.
I bought this house at once for fear that they might change their mind.

5- Adverbial clauses of RESULTare used to describe consequences and are introduced by the conjunctions:so that, so…that…, etc.
Eg: The house was surrounded by many trees and bushes so that we couldn’t find it.
The problem is so simple that a child can understand.
We arrived early so that we got good seats.
It was such a cold day that the streets were almost empty.

6- Adverbial clauses of PURPOSE: answer the question “What for?” or “For what purpose?” and can be introduced by the following conjunctions: so that, in order that, less, for fear that, etc.
Eg: We will write down her name so that we may not forget.

We must hurry less we should be late for the train.
She worked hard for her exams in order that she could get good marks.

7- Adverbial clauses of CONCESSION(Contrast): introduce an element of contrast into a sentence and are introduced by the following conjunctions: however, though, although, even though, even if, no matter how,whoever, whatever, whichever, etc.
Eg: Though they could see nothing, they distinctively heard the sound in the distance.
Whatever you say, I would never change my mind.
No matter where you go, you can not escape from yourself.
No matter how hard he tries, he will not get this job.

8- Adverbial clauses of CONDITION: express a condition by which an action can or can not happen. They are introduced by the following conjunctions: if, unless, on condition that, supposing that, so long as, etc.
Eg: If it is late, we should stop our work here.
Supposing that he doesn’t come, what shall we do?
So long as you didn’t work hard, you wouldn’t get this job.

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29. Subordinate clause in complex sentences.

According to the degree of self-dependence of clauses complex sentences are divided into monolythic and segregative sentence structures. Monolythic complex sentences are based on obligatory subordinative connections of clauses, whereas segregative complex sentences are based on optional subordinative connections.

Monolythic complex sentences:
1) merger complex sentences, i.e. sentences with subject and predicative subordinate clauses, where the subordinate clause is fused with the principal one.
E.g. The trouble is we are to change our plans.

2) valency monolyth complexes, whose subordinate clauses are dependent on the obligatory right-hand valency of the verb in the principal clause. Here belong sentences with object clauses and valency-determined adverbial clauses.
E.g. I think a man like that is a real artist. – I think -…
e.g. Put the book where it belongs. – Put the book - …

3) correlation monolyth complexes, which are based on subordinate correlations. Complex sentences with restrictive subordinate clauses are included into this subtype.
E.g. The girl played the piano with such feeling as you had never experienced.

4) arrangement monolyth complexes, whose obligatory connection between the principal and subordinate clauses is determined only by the linear order of clausal positions.
E.g. If you refused her present, it would upset her.

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28. Compound sentence: classification

The compound sentence is a combination of two or more simple or complex sentences. While the complex sentence has only one main clause, the compound has two or more independent clauses making statements, questions, or commands. Hence the definition,-
A compound sentence is one which contains two or more independent clauses.
This leaves room for any number of subordinate clauses in a compound sentence: the requirement is simply that it have at least two independent clauses.

Examples of compound sentences:-
(1) Simple sentences united:"He is a palace of sweet sounds and sights; he dilates; he is twice a man; he walks with arms akimbo; he soliloquizes."
(2) Simple with complex:"The trees of the forest, the waving grass, and the peeping flowers have grown intelligent; and he almost fears to trust them with the secret which they seem to invite."
(3) Complex with complex:"The power which resides in him is new in nature, and none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does he know until he has tried."

Types of connection
Semantic relations Types of connection
unmarked marked
Copulative
(соединительный) Time passed, (and) she came to no conclusion. I neither played any records, northe guests asked me to.
Enumerative The sky was dark, (and) the air was damp, (and) the streets were wet. ---
Causal
(причинный) We cannot go upstairs, we are too tired. We cannot go upstairs, for we are too tired.
Resultative
(consequential)(косвенный) The breeze was fresh, (and) the yacht sailed on well. The breeze was fresh, so the yacht sailed on well.
Adversative
(противительный) --- It was early afternoon, but it was very dark outside.
Disjunctive
(разделительный) --- Either you travel as a gentleman,or you travel alone.

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27. Types of simple sentences, illocutionary force

Sentences can be classified according to their structural, semantic and
pragmatic properties.

The elementary sentence coincides structurally with the so-called unexpanded simple sentence, a monopredicative sentence, which includes only obligatory nominative parts. The expanded simple sentence includes also some optional parts, i.e. supplementive modifiers, which do not violate the syntactic status of the simple sentence, i.e. do not make it into a composite or semi-composite sentence
The two principal parts of the sentence, the subject and the predicate, with the subordinate secondary parts attached to them are the two constitutive members or “axes” of the sentence: the subject group (the subject “axis”) and the predicate group (the predicate “axis”). On the basis of their representation in the outer structure of the sentence, sentences are subdivided into complete sentences and incomplete sentences: in complete sentences both the subject group and the predicate group are present; they are also called “two-member sentences” or “two-axis sentences”; if only one axis is expressed in the outer structure of the sentence, the sentence is defined as incomplete; it is also called “one-member sentence”, “one-axis sentence.
One-member sentences are further divided into:
a) nominal or "naming" sentences;
b) infinitival sentences.
Nominal sentences name a person or thing. The main member in such
sentences is expressed by a noun.
e.g. Winter. Snow.
The main member of infinitival sentences is expressed by an infinitive.
Infinitival sentences are fairly common in spoken English and literary prose. Like
other units of predicative value, they can communicate not only their denotative
meaning but also the connotative suggestions of various circumstances of their use.
e.g. To talk like that to your own mother! To have eloped with a butler!
One-member sentences should be kept apart from two-member sentences
with either the subject or the predicate omitted, i. e. from elliptical sentences.

The semantic classification of simple sentences is based on principal parts semantics. On the basis of subject categorial meaning, sentences are divided into impersonal, e.g.: It drizzles; There is no use crying over spilt milk; and personal; personal sentences are further subdivided into human and non-human. Human sentences are further subdivided into definite, e.g.: I know it; and indefinite, e.g.: One never knows such things for sure. Non-human sentences are further subdivided into animate, e.g.: A cat entered the room;and inanimate, e.g.: The wind opened the door. Impersonal sentences may be further subdivided into factual, e.g.: It drizzles; and perceptional, e.g. It looks like rain.
On the basis of predicate categorial meaning, sentences are divided into process featuring (“verbal”) and substance featuring (“nominal”); process featuring sentences are further subdivided into actional, e.g.: I play ball; and statal, e.g.: I enjoy your party; substance featuring sentences are further subdivided into factual, e.g.: She is clever; and perceptional, e.g.: She seems to be clever. As the examples show, the differences in subject categorial meaning are sustained by obvious differences in the subject-predicate combinability.
In practical courses on grammar, various subdivisions of simple sentences are usually based on the structure of the predicate: predicates are subdivided intosimple (I read) and compound, which are further subdivided into compound verbal predicates (She started crying) and compound nominal predicates with pure and specifying link verbs (She looked beautiful).
On the basis of subject-object relations, simple sentences are divided into subjective, e.g.: He is a writer;objective, e.g.: He is writing a book; and neutral or“potentially” objective, e.g.: He is writing.

The illocutionary force of an utterance is the speaker's intention in producing that utterance. An illocutionary act is an instance of a culturally-defined speech act type, characterised by a particular illocutionary force; for example, promising, advising, warning, ..
Thus, if a speaker asks How's that salad doing? Is it ready yet?" as a way of ("politely") enquiring about the salad, his/her intent may be in fact to make the waiter bring the salad. Thus the illocutionary force of the utterance is not an inquiry about the progress of salad construction, but a demand that the salad be brought.
Another definition:
Illocutionary force is the combination of
• the illocutionary point of an utterance, and
• the particular presuppositions and attitudes that must accompany that point, including the
o strength of the illocutionary point
o preparatory conditions
o propositional content conditions
o mode of achievement
o sincerity conditions, and
o strength of sincerity conditions.
Examples (English)
• Illocutionary force distinguishes the following types of acts:
• Asserting
• Promising
• Excommunicating
• Exclaiming in pain
• Inquiring
• Ordering

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26. The Clause.

Sentences can be broken down into clauses.
A Clause is a part of a sentence that usually contains a Subject and a Verb. It is usually connected to the other part of the Sentence by a Conjunction. It is not a complete sentence on its own. However, a sentence containing only one clause is called a simple sentence.
For example:
The boy is going to the school, and he is going to eat there.

This is a complete sentence composed of two clauses.
There are mainly two types of clauses: independent clauses and subordinate clauses.

Independent clauses act as complete sentences, while subordinate clauses cannot stand alone and need another clause to complete their meaning. For example:
Independent clause: “The boy went to the school.”
Subordinate clause: “After the boy went to the school…”

A clause is a group of words which acts as a single unit and is built round a verb, for example:
he lives in America
Compound and complex sentences contain two or more clauses:
Simple:
John is living in America.
Compound:
He lives in America, but his family is still in Wales.
Complex:
While his family is still in Wales, John’s staying with friends.
Minor: A minor sentence is one without a verb, e.g:
First, a word about sentences.
America, of all places!

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25. Obligatory and optional parts of the sentence.

The syntactic functions or the members of the sentence are traditionally divided into principal (main)and secondary.
The principal parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate, which modify each other: the subject is the “person” modifier of the predicate, and the predicate is the “process” modifier of the subject; they are interdependent.

The secondary parts are: the object – a substance modifier of the predicate; the attribute – a quality modifier of substantive parts, either the subject or the object; the adverbial modifier – a quality modifier of the predicate; the apposition – a substance modifier of the subject; the parenthesis (parenthetical enclosure) - a detached speaker-bound modifier either of one of the nominative parts of the sentence or of the sentence in general; the address (addressing enclosure) – a modifier of the destination of the whole sentence; the interjection (interjectional enclosure) – an emotional modifier.

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24. The adverbial modifier

It is a secondary part of the sentence modifying a part of the sentence
expressed by a verb, a verbal noun, an adjective, or an adverb, and serving to
characterise an action or a property as to its quality or intensity, or to indicate the
way an action is done, the time, place, cause, purpose, or condition, with which the
action or the manifestation of the quality is connected.

Adverbial modifier is characterized by mostly free distribution. It can be a
constituent of any sentence. It can be a component of a structural scheme of a
sentence only when used with verbs of adverbial directivity.


There are several ways of classifying adverbial modifiers:
1. According to their meaning – not a grammatical classification. However it may acquire some grammatical significance.
2. According to their morphological peculiarities – according to the parts of speech and to the phrase patterns. It has also something to do with word order, and stands in a certain relation to the classification according to meaning.adverb,preposition + noun,a noun without a preposition,infinitive or an infinitive phrase
3. According to the type of their head-word – is the syntactic classification proper. The meaning of the word (phrase) acting as modifier should be compatible with the meaning of the head-word.
Adverbial modifier of:
• Time and frequency,
• Place and direction,
• Manner and attendant
• circumstances,
• Cause,
• Purpose,
• Result,
• Condition,
• Concession,
• Degree

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23. The Object

The Object is a secondary part of the sentence expressed by a verb, a noun, a substantival pronoun, an adjective, a numeral, or an adverb, and denoting a thing to which the action passes on, which is a result of the action, in reference to which an action is committed or a property is manifested, or denoting an action as object of another action.

Objects differ form one another
• by their morphological composition, by the parts of speech or phrases which perform the function of object
• by the type of their relation to the action expressed by the verb (direct/indirect)

Classification of object:
1. Prepositional and non-prepositional objects
2. Morphological types (noun, pronoun, substantivized adjective, infinitive, gerund)
3. Direct/indirect, is applied only to objects expressed by nouns or pronouns. There are sentences in which the predicate is expressed by the verbs send, show, lend, give. These verbs usually take 2 different kinds of objects simultaneously: (1) an object expressing the thing which is sent, shown, lent, given, etc. (2) the person or persons to whom the thing is sent, shown, lent, given, etc. The difference between the 2 relations is clear enough: the direct object denotes the thing immediately affected by the action denoted by the predicate verb, whereas the indirect object expresses the person towards whom the thing is moved, e.g. We sent them a present. The indirect object stands 1st, the direct object comes after it.

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22. Primary and secondary predicates.

In every sentence there is bound to be predication, without which there would be no sentence. In a usual two-member sentence the predication is between the subject and the predicate. In most sentences this is the only predication they contain. However, there are also sentences which contain one more predication, which is not between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. This predication may conveniently be termed secondary predication.

A secondary predicate is a (mostly adjectival) predicative expression that conveys information about the subject but is not the main predicate of the clause. This structure may be analysed in many different ways.
These may be resultative, as in (1) and (2) or descriptive as in (3).
(1) She painted the town red
(2) The film left me cold
(3) Susan walked around naked.

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21. THE COMPOUND NOMINAL PREDICATE.

The compound nominal predicate denotes a certain state or quality of the subject, it`s a qualifying predicate.
The compound nominal predicate consists of two parts the link-verb and the predicative. The predicative names a state or a property. It serves to characterize the subject. It can be expressed by a word of any notional part of speech or by a phrase or a clause.
She is a doctor (noun)
She is beautiful(adjective)
Our task is that we should know grammar well. (Predicative clause)

Sometimes the predicative is expressed by an infinitive or a gerundial complex
E.g.The most important thing for us is to meet her .
The greatest trouble was our not knowing all the details.

The link-verb expresses different grammatical categories. It has no independent meaning and its function is to connect the subject with the predicative. It`s usually expressed by the verb to be but it can also be expressed by some other verb which loses its lexical meaning and acquires the abstract meaning of
1.Being(be, feel, look, smell, taste) (sound funny, burn dim, suck dry,)
2.Becoming(become, grow, get, turn) (to be called Bob, to be left alone,)
3.Remaining(remain, continue, keep, stay) (to be elected president)
4.Seeming and appearing(seem, appear) E.g.The weather turned cold.You look great.

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20. The verbal predicate (simple, compound)

The Simple Verbal Predicate denotes an activity performed (suffered) by the object.
Its expressed by the finite form of the verb in the required tense, mood, aspect and voice. Itcan also be expressed by a set expression (phrase)
E.g.
I like grammar
.We are reading English books. (Analytical form)
He pays much attention to his grammar.(Set phrase)

The Compound Verbal Predicate consists of two parts. They are called:The semi-auxiliary part and the notional part. The notional part names an action or a process and its mostly expressed by an infinitive or a gerund.The semi-auxiliary part expresses different grammatical categories (tense, mood, aspect etc.)
Care should be taken that the compound verbal predicate is never used in its pure type.Its always used in one of its variants. Depending on the nature of the semi-auxiliary part we differentiate the following types of the compound verbal predicate:

1. The COMPOUND VERBAL MODAL PREDICATE
In this predicate the semi-auxiliary part is expressed by a modal verb or by a word phrase of modal semantics. (try,intend,have to,to be to,to be about,)
2. The COMPOUND VERBAL ASPECTIVE PREDICATE.
In this predicate the semi-auxiliary part is expressed by a verb of aspective semantics i.e.by a verb denoting the beginning, continuation or end of some action. (begin,continue,go on,stop,finish,cease,start,carry on,commence,set about,keep,proceed,give up,leave off)
It can also be expressed by the verbs used to or would which express a repeated action in the past. E.g. It began raining. He used to call on us every Monday.
2. The COMPOUND VERBAL MODAL-ASPECTIVE PREDICATE.
In this predicate the semi-auxiliary part is expressed by a verb of aspective semantics which is modified by a modal element (modal phrase etc.) E.g.It may begin raining soon.

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19. The Predicate.

The predicate denotes the action or property of the thing expressed by the
subject. It can be expressed by numerous ways. The predicate expresses the
predicative feature which characterized the object expressed by the subject, thus it
realizes the categorial function. Being a link between the subject and the right
environment of the verb, it performs the relative function.

According to morphological characteristics, four types of predicates can be
singled out:
- verbal;
- nominal;
- phraseological;
- contaminated.
according to their structural characteristics, predicates can be simple and
complicated. Therefore, eight types of predicates can be identified.
Simple verbal I took an apple.
Simple nominal The coincidence was extraordinary.
Simple He gave me a smile.
phraseological
Simple contaminated He sat motionless.
Complicated verbal The girl began to cry.
Complicated He turned out to be a thief.
nominal
Complicated You should have taken a look at the map.
phraseological
Complicated He seemed to be lying asleep.
contaminated

There exists one type of predicate which is very frequent in English and which presents a combination of such verbs as have, get, give, take and a verbal noun (give a look, take a bath, have a smoke). Traditionally such cases were referred to a third formal type of predicate, a phraseological predicate. However from the grammatical point of view the most important characteristic of this type of predicate is not so much its phraseological but its analytical character (and all analytical structures are characterized by a certain idiomaticity of their components). The distribution of functions between the components of this predicate is similar to those within an analytical form - the verb expresses the grammatical meaning and the verbal noun serves to name the action, i.e. to express a lexical meaning.
The two formal types of the predicate correspond to the two main semantic types: process predicate which expresses the action, the state or the existence of the subject and qualification predicate which expresses the quality (property) of the subject. The process predicate can be further subdivided into several types in accordance with the semantic types of verbs: existential ( There was a tavern in the town), statal (He slept), locative (The elephant lives in India), relational (He had a small ranch) and actional(The car broke down). The qualification predicate has three subtypes: identifying (So you are the man we have been looking for), classifying ( My friend is a student) and characterizing ( My wife is a bit of an actress. He was too German).
The two types of predicate can be contaminated which results in the formation of the so-called double predicate, He stared at me bewildered. - the finite verb in such sentences conveys a meaning of its own, but the main point of the sentence lies in the information conveyed by the predicative noun or adjective. The finite verb performs the function of a link verb.
Since such sentences have both a simple verbal predicate and a compound nominal predicate, they form a special or mixed type: double predicates.

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The Subject.

The subject is the independent member of a two-member predication, containing the person component of predicativity.
The subject is generally defined as a word or a group of words denoting the thing we speak about. The subject of a simple sentence can be a word, a syntactical word-morpheme or a complex.
As a word it can belong to different parts of speech, but it is mostly a noun or a pronoun. A word used as a subject combines the lexical meaning with the structural meaning of “person”. So it is at the same time the structural and the notional subject.
The syntactical word-morphemes there and it may also function as secondary subjects (It being cold, we put on our coats. I knew of there being no one to help them). The analysis of sentences like He was seen to enter the house, is a point at issue. Traditionally the infinitive is said to form part of the complex subject (He…to enter). Ilyish maintains that though satisfactory from the logical point of view, this interpretation seems to be artificial grammatically, this splitting of the subject being alien to English. He suggests that only HE should be treated as a subject, whereas was sees to enter represents a peculiar type of compound predicate. Some grammarians (Smirnitsky, Ganshina) speak of definite-personal, indefinite-personal, impersonal sentences, but it is a semantical classification of subjects, not sentences.

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17. Simple Sentence. Structure.

The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word:
Run!
Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are simple sentences, because each contains only one clause:
Melt!
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake to think that you can tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by its length.

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16. The sentence. Predicativity

1. A sentence is a proposition expressed by words (something true). A proposition is the semantic invariant of all the members of modal and communicative paradigms of sentences and their transforms. But besides sentences which contain propositions there are interrogative and negative sentences. Speech is emotional. There is no one to one relationship. Then a sentence can be grammatically correct, but from the point of view of logic it won’t be correct, true to life (Water is a gas). Laws of thinking are universal but there are many languages. Grammar and Logic don’t coincide.
2. A sentence is a subject-predicate structure. What are the subject and the predicate? Grammatical subject can only be defined in terms of the sentence. Moreover the grammatical subject often does not indicate what we are ‘talking about’ (The birds have eaten all the fruit. It is getting cold). Besides, this definition leaves out verbless sentences. There are one-member sentences. They are non-sentences? Conclusion – a sentence is a structural scheme.
3. Phonological: A sentence is a flow of speech between 2 pauses. But speech is made up of incomplete, interrupted, unfinished, or even quite chaotic sentences. Speech is made up of utterances but utterances seldom correspond to sentences.

Thus, it is more preferable to describe a sentence than to define it. The main peculiar features of the sentence are: integrity, syntactic independence, grammatical completeness, semantic completeness, communicative completeness, communicative functioning, predicativity, modality, intonational completeness

M. Blokh: The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose.

Classification of sentences
1. According to structural features: simple and composite; two-member and one- member sentences. Elliptical and one-member sentences:
e.g. Marvelous! Horrible! How very interesting!
e.g. No birds singing at the dawn (Strong resemblance to 2 member sentences).
e.g. I saw him there. Yesterday (parselation).
2. According to the purpose of the utterance: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, ? optative.

Predicativity is a syntactical category. It is actualized reference to reality. Predicativity consists in ascribing an action, state or quality from the predicate to the subject. It is expressed through the interrelation between two principal parts of the sentence the subject and the predicate (formally through their agreement in person and number + tense characteristics, refers an action to a definite period of time).

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15. The Noun: Gender.

It’s doubtful whether the grammatical category of gender exists in Modern English. Gender doesn’t find regular morphological expression.
The distinction of male, female and neuter may correspond to the lexical meaning of the noun:

Masculine (names of male beings) - boy, man, husband, cock, bachelor
Feminine (names of female beings) – girl, woman, wife, cow, hen
Neuter (names of inanimate objects) – table, house.

Gender may be expressed by word-formation:
a) feminine suffixes –ess ( actress, hostess, tigress), -ine (heroine), -ette (usherette)
b) compounds of dif.patterns: 1. N+N stem (boy-friend-girl-friend; a Tom-cat- a Tabby-cat; a doctor-a woman-doctor; a landlord- a landlady); 2. Pronoun+ N (a he-wolf- a she-wolf; a he-cousin-a she-cousin); 3. oppositions of lexemes ( niece-nephew, bull-cow, girl-boy).
There are a lot of nouns in English, that belong to the so-called “common gender” (person, cousin, parent, president, friend, doctor).

There are also some traditional associations of certain nouns with gender:
a) moon and earth are referred as feminine, sun- as masculine.
b) the names of vessels (ship, boat, ice-breaker, steamer) are referred to as feminine.
c) the names of vehicles (car, carriage, coach) may also be referred to as feminine, especially by their owners.
d) the names of countries, if the country is not considered as a mere geographical territory, are referred to as feminine.

All these arguments speak in favour of treating the category of gender in English nouns as not a purely grammatical, but alexico-gram. category, because gender finds a lexical (special suffixes & lexemes) and a gram. expression in the language ( replacing nouns by personal pronouns)

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14. Mood.

The category of MOOD is the most controversial category of the verb.
The category of MOOD expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality, either presenting the process as a fact that really happened, happens or will happen, or treating it as an imaginary phenomenon, i.e. the subject of a hypothesis (предположение), speculation (размышление), desire.
Mood is the form of the verb that shows the mode or manner in which a thought is expressed.

Division of moods:
1. indicative (actually taking place)
2. conditional (merely imaginary)

The Indefinite Mood is the only real mood in the English language. It represents an action as a real fact. The forms of the Ind. Mood are the tense-aspect forms of the verb.
There are 2 non-fact Moods in English: the Imperative Mood and the Subjunctive Mood.
2. Imperative Mood: expresses command, prohibition, entreaty, or advice:
Don’t smoke in this building.
Be careful!
Don’t drown that puppy!
3. Subjunctive Mood: expresses doubt or something contrary to fact.
May you live long and prosper.
If I were you, I wouldn’t keep driving on those tires.


Number of MOODS:
• Ilyish 3 MOODS (indicative, subjunctive, imperative)- meaning form;
• M.Deutschbein: 16 MOODS а functional approach;
• Prof. Smirnitsky (+ O.S.Akhmanova, M.Gashina, N.Vasilevskaya): 6 MOODS (indicative, imperative, subjunctive I, subjunctive II, suppositional, conditional) - form и meaning;
• L.S.Barhudarov, D.A. Shteling: 2 MOODS (indicative, subjunctive);
• G.N.Vorontsova: 4 MOODS (indicative, optative speculative, presumptive).

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13. Passive vs Compaund Adjectival Predicate

When dealing with the category of Voice the problem is that the Passive Voice constructions coincide with the compound nominal predicate ( was opened ). If this construction (be + Participle II) expresses a state then it is a compound nominal predicate in the Active Voice. Ex. The window was broken and it was cold in the room. She was excited (a.v.) She was excited by the friend's words. (P. V.)

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12. Passive vs Active

When the subject is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, it is said to be in the passive voice.

English language use a periphrastic passive voice; that is, it is not a single word form, but rather a construction making use of other word forms. Specifically, it is made up of a form of the auxiliary verb to be and a past participle of the main verb.

The frequency of occurrence of the English Passive Voice is very great, greater than in Russian. One of the reasons is that the number of verbs capable of forming the Passive Voice is greater in English than in Russian. In many languages: PV – transitive verbs, in English: PV – any object verb.

The idea of the Passive voice is expressed not only by means of “to be + P2”, but by means of “get”, “come”, “go” + P2 and “get” + passive infinitive (ingressive meaning - He got involved; He got to be respected). The verbs get and become retain to some extent their lexical meaning;

Passive constructions:
• Direct Passive (The letter was written yesterday)
• Indirect Passive (I was given a very interesting book)
• Prepositional Passive (The doctor was sent for)
• Phraseological Passive (Care should be taken not to confuse these words)
• Adverbial Passive (The house has not been lived in for many years)

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11. Voice

In grammar, the Voice of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc.). When the subject is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, it is said to be in the passive voice.

The verbal category of voice shows the direction of the process as regards the participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic construction.
Wrote – was written
Meaning – direction of the action, whether the action is represented as issuing from its subject or as experienced by its object.
• He wrote this letter yesterday. – This letter was written yesterday.

Besides there 2 Voice some authors speak of some more Voice forms. The most popular are the Reflexive Voice and the Reciprocal Voice and the Middle Voice.
Some languages have a middle voice. This is a set of inflections or constructions which is to some extent different from both the active and passive voices. The middle voice is said to be in the middle between the active and the passive voices because the subject often cannot be categorized as either agent or patient but may have elements of both. For example, in The casserole cooked in the oven, cooked is syntactically active but semantically passive.

Prof.Barkhudarov considers the middle meaning to be part of the active voice meaning. If it were part of the passive voice meaning it would be possible to use the by-phrase: ٭The bells rang by John; ٭The fabric washed by the girl.

Reflexive voice: He hurt himself. Meaning – the action is concentrated on one and the same person. Form – verb + reflexive pronoun. But reflexive pronouns can be omitted and the meaning of reflexivity remains: He shaved and dressed. Prof. Ilyish: He hurt himself and the child. Besides: He makes toys – He makes mistakes. And not always reflexive pronouns can be omitted: He found himself in a dark room.

Reciprocal voice: They met each other at the station. Meaning – mutuality of the action. The subject is often plural. Form – verb + reciprocal pronoun. But They met at the station.

Other voices: it’s a matter of approach if the idea of the Voice depends on the meaning – I wash myself – the reflexive Voice; but if we consider Voices as a grammatical category with special markers, we can’t say that it is a voice. There is no special way of expressing the RV and the R pronoun is not obligatory – it’s not a special category. The existence of various means of expressing voice distinctions makes it possible «to consider voice as a functional-semantic category with the grammatical category of voice as its center and other means of expressing voice as a periphery.